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Romanian (obsolete spelling: Roumanian; , or românește , ) is the official and main language of Romania and Moldova. Romanian is part of the Eastern Romance sub-branch of Romance languages, a linguistic group that evolved from several dialects of Vulgar Latin which separated from the Western Romance languages in the course of the period from the 5th to the 8th centuries."Istoria limbii române" ("History of the Romanian Language"), II, Academia Română, Bucharest, 1969 To distinguish it within the Eastern Romance languages, in comparative linguistics it is called Daco-Romanian as opposed to its closest relatives, Aromanian, Megleno-Romanian, and Istro-Romanian. It is also spoken as a minority language by stable communities in the countries surrounding Romania (Bulgaria, Hungary, Serbia and Ukraine), and by the large Romanian diaspora. In total, it is spoken by 25 million people as a first language.
Romanian was also known as Moldovan in Moldova, although the Constitutional Court of Moldova ruled in 2013 that "the official language of Moldova is Romanian". On 16 March 2023, the Moldovan Parliament approved a law on referring to the national language as Romanian in all legislative texts and the constitution. On 22 March, the president of Moldova, Maia Sandu, Promulgation the law.
From the 12th or 13th century, official documents and religious texts were written in Old Church Slavonic, a language that had a similar role to Medieval Latin in Western Europe. The oldest dated text in Romanian is a letter written in 1521 with Cyrillic script, and until late 18th century, including during the development of printing, the same alphabet was used. The period after 1780, starting with the writing of its first grammar books, represents the modern age of the language, during which time the Latin script became official, the literary language was standardized, and a large number of words from Neo-Latin and other Romance languages entered the lexis.
In the process of language evolution from fewer than 2500 attested words from Late antiquity to a Romanian lexis of over 150,000 words in its contemporary form, Romanian showed a high degree of lexical permeability, reflecting contact with Thraco-Dacian, Slavic languages (including Old Slavic, Serbian language, Bulgarian, Ukrainian, and Russian language), Greek language, Hungarian, German language, Turkish language, and to languages that served as cultural models during and after the Age of Enlightenment, in particular French language. This lexical permeability is continuing today with the introduction of English language words.Pană Dindelegan, Gabriela, The Grammar of Romanian, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2013, ISBN 978-0-19-964492-6, page 5
Yet while the overall lexis was enriched with foreign words and internal constructs, in accordance with the history and development of the society and the diversification in semantic fields, the fundamental lexicon—the core vocabulary used in everyday conversation—remains governed by inherited elements from the Latin spoken in the Roman Empire provinces bordering Danube, without which no coherent sentence can be made.
Most scholars agree that two major dialects had developed from Common Romanian by the 10th century. Daco-Romanian (the official language of Romania and Moldova) and Istro-Romanian (a language spoken today by no more than 2,000 people in Istria) descended from the northern dialect. Two other languages, Aromanian and Megleno-Romanian, developed from the southern version of Common Romanian. These two languages are now spoken in lands to the south of the Jireček Line.
Of the features that individualize Common Romanian, inherited from Latin or subsequently developed, of particular importance are:Pană Dindelegan, Gabriela, The Grammar of Romanian, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2013, ISBN 978-0-19-964492-6, page 4
The few allusions to the use of Romanian in writing as well as common words, anthroponyms and toponyms preserved in the Old Church Slavonic religious writings and chancellery documents, attested prior to the 16th century, along with the analysis of graphemes show that the writing of Romanian with the Cyrillic alphabet started in the second half of the 15th century.
The Hurmuzaki Psalter ( Psaltirea Hurmuzaki) is the oldest writing in Romanian, dated on the basis of watermarks between 1491–1504. It is a copy of an older, fifteenth-century translation of the Psalter, which was bilingual (written in Church Slavonic, with Romanian translation after each verse). The oldest Romanian document precisely dated is Neacșu's letter (1521) and was written using the Romanian Cyrillic alphabet, which was used until the late 19th century. The letter is the oldest testimony of Romanian epistolary style and uses a prevalent lexis of Latin origin. The slow process of Romanian establishing itself as an official language, used in the public sphere, in literature and ecclesiastically, began in the late 15th century and ended in the early decades of the 18th century, by which time Romanian had begun to be regularly used by the Church. The oldest Romanian texts of a literary nature are liturgical texts of the Eastern Orthodox Church: Psalter (Hurmuzaki Psalter, Scheian Psalter, Psalter of Voroneț) and Apostolos lectionary (Bratu's Codex, Codex of Voroneț). Their origins go back to the 15th century. The fact that they are bilingual writings or descend from bilingual writings shows that the initiative to translate them was prompted by the need to facilitate access to the Church Slavonic liturgical text.
The language spoken during this period had a phonological system of seven vowels and twenty-nine consonants. Particular to Old Romanian are the distribution of /z/, as the allophone of /dz/ from Common Romanian, in the Wallachian and south-east Transylvanian varieties, the presence of palatal sonorants /ʎ/ and /ɲ/, nowadays preserved only regionally in Banat and Oltenia, and the beginning of devoicing of asyllabic u after consonants. Text analysis revealed words that are now lost from modern vocabulary or used only in local varieties. These words were of various provenience for example: Latin ( cure – to run, mâneca- to leave), Old Church Slavonic ( drăghicame – gem, precious stone, prilăsti – to trick, to cheat), Hungarian ( bizăntui – to bear witness).
Between 1830 and 1860 "transitional alphabets" were used, adding Latin letters to the Romanian Cyrillic alphabet. The Latin alphabet became official at different dates in Wallachia and Transylvania1860, and Moldova1862.
Following the unification of Moldavia and Wallachia further studies on the language were made, culminating with the founding of Societatea Literară Română on 1 April 1866 on the initiative of C. A. Rosetti, an academic society that had the purpose of standardizing the orthography, formalizing the grammar and (via a dictionary) vocabulary of the language, and promoting literary and scientific publications. This institution later became the Romanian Academy. History of Romanian Academy
The current orthography, with minor reforms to this day and using Latin letters, was fully implemented in 1881, regulated by the Romanian Academy on a fundamentally phonological principle, with few morpho-syntactic exceptions.Pană Dindelegan, Gabriela, The Grammar of Romanian, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013, ISBN 978-0-19-964492-6, page 5
Bessarabia during the 1812–1918 era witnessed the gradual development of bilingualism. Russian continued to develop as the official language of privilege, whereas Romanian remained the principal vernacular.
The period from 1905 to 1917 was one of increasing linguistic conflict spurred by an increase in Romanian nationalism. In 1905 and 1906, the Bessarabian zemstvo]] asked for the re-introduction of Romanian in schools as a "compulsory language", and the "liberty to teach in the mother language (Romanian language)". At the same time, Romanian-language newspapers and journals began to appear, such as Basarabia (1906), Viața Basarabiei (1907), Moldovanul (1907), Luminătorul (1908), Cuvînt moldovenesc (1913), Glasul Basarabiei (1913). From 1913, the synod permitted that "the churches in Bessarabia use the Romanian language". Romanian finally became the official language with the Constitution of 1923.
Romanian is the single official and national language in Romania and Moldova, although it shares the official status at regional level with other languages in the Moldovan autonomies of Gagauzia and Transnistria. Romanian is also an official language of the Vojvodina in Serbia along with five other languages. Romanian minorities are encountered in Serbia (Timok Valley), Ukraine (Chernivtsi and Odesa Oblast ), and Hungary (Gyula). Large immigrant communities are found in Italy, Spain, France, and Portugal.
In 1995, the largest Romanian-speaking community in the Middle East was found in Israel, where Romanian was spoken by 5% of the population.According to the 1993 Statistical Abstract of Israel there were 250,000 Romanian speakers in Israel, of a population of 5,548,523 in 1995 (census). Romanian is also spoken as a second language by people from Arabic-speaking countries who have studied in Romania. It is estimated that almost half a million Middle Eastern Arabs studied in Romania during the 1980s. Small Romanian-speaking communities are to be found in Kazakhstan and Russia. Romanian is also spoken within communities of Romanian and Moldovan immigrants in the United States, Canada and Australia, although they do not make up a large homogeneous community statewide.
Romania mandates the use of Romanian in official government publications, public education and legal contracts. Advertisements as well as other public messages must bear a translation of foreign words,Legea "George Pruteanu": 500/2004 – Law on the Protection of the Romanian Language while trade signs and logos shall be written predominantly in Romanian.Art. 27 (3), Legea nr. 26/1990 privind Registrul Comerțului
The Romanian Language Institute (Institutul Limbii Române), established by the Ministry of Education of Romania, promotes Romanian and supports people willing to study the language, working together with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs' Department for Romanians Abroad.
Since 2013, the Romanian Language Day is celebrated on every 31 August.
Scholars agree that Moldovan and Romanian are the same language, with the glottonym "Moldovan" used in certain political contexts. It has been the sole official language since the adoption of the Law on State Language of the Moldavian SSR in 1989.
In the 2014 census, out of the 2,804,801 people living in Moldova, 24% (652,394) stated Romanian as their most common language, whereas 56% stated Moldovan. While in the urban centers speakers are split evenly between the two names (with the capital Chișinău showing a strong preference for the name "Romanian", i.e. 3:2), in the countryside hardly a quarter of Romanian/Moldovan speakers indicated Romanian as their native language.National Bureau of Statistics of the Republic of Moldova: Census 2014 Unofficial results of this census first showed a stronger preference for the name Romanian, however the initial reports were later dismissed by the Institute for Statistics, which led to speculations in the media regarding the forgery of the census results.
Overview
The history of the Romanian language started in the north of the Jireček Line in Classical antiquity but there are three main hypotheses about its exact territory: the autochthony thesis (it developed in left-Danube Dacia only), the discontinuation thesis (it developed in right-Danube provinces only), and the "as-well-as" thesis that supports the language development on both sides of the Danube. Between the 6th and 8th century, following the accumulated tendencies inherited from the vernacular spoken in this large area and, to a much smaller degree, the influences from native dialects, and in the context of a lessened power of the Roman central authority the language evolved into Common Romanian. This proto-language then came into close contact with the Slavic languages and subsequently divided into Aromanian, Megleno-Romanian, Istro-Romanian, and Daco-Romanian. Due to limited attestation between the 6th and 16th century, entire stages from its history are re-constructed by researchers, often with proposed relative chronologies and loose limits.Pană Dindelegan, Gabriela, The Grammar of Romanian, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2013, ISBN 978-0-19-964492-6, pages 3 and 4
History
Common Romanian
Romanian descended from the Latin spoken in the of Southeastern Europe north of the Jireček Line (a hypothetical boundary between the dominance of Latin and Greek influences).
Old Romanian
The use of the denomination Romanian (română) for the language and use of the demonym Romanians (Români) for speakers of this language predate the foundation of the modern Romanian state. Romanians always used the general term rumân/român or regional terms such as ardeleni (or ungureni), moldoveni or munteni to designate themselves. Both the name of rumână or rumâniască for the Romanian language and the self-designation rumân/român are attested as early as the 16th century, by various foreign travelers into the Carpathian Romance-speaking space,Ștefan Pascu, Documente străine despre români, ed. Arhivelor statului, București 1992, as well as in other historical documents written in Romanian at that time such as ( The Chronicles of the land of Moldova) by Grigore Ureche.
Modern Romanian
The modern age of Romanian starts in 1780 with the printing in Vienna of a very important grammar book titled Elementa linguae daco-romanae sive valachicae. The author of the book, Samuil Micu-Klein, and the revisor, Gheorghe Șincai, both members of the Transylvanian School, chose to use Latin as the language of the text and presented the phonological and Romanian grammar features of Romanian in comparison to its ancestor. The Modern age of Romanian language can be further divided into three phases: pre-modern or modernizing between 1780 and 1830, modern phase between 1831 and 1880, and contemporary from 1880 onwards.
Pre-modern period
Beginning with the printing in 1780 of Elementa linguae daco-romanae sive valachicae, the pre-modern phase was characterized by the publishing of school textbooks, appearance of first normative works in Romanian, numerous translations, and the beginning of a conscious stage of re-latinization of the language. Notable contributions, besides that of the Transylvanian School, are the activities of Gheorghe Lazăr, founder of the first Romanian school, and Ion Heliade Rădulescu. The end of this period is marked by the first printing of magazines and newspapers in Romanian, in particular Curierul Românesc and Albina Românească.
Modern period
Starting from 1831 and lasting until 1880 the modern phase is characterized by the development of literary styles: scientific, administrative, and belletristic. It quickly reached a high point with the printing of Dacia Literară, a journal founded by Mihail Kogălniceanu and representing a literary society, which together with other publications like Propășirea and Gazeta de Transilvania spread the ideas of Romantic nationalism and later contributed to the formation of other societies that took part in the Revolutions of 1848. Their members and those that shared their views are collectively known in Romania as "of '48"(pașoptiști), a name that was extended to the literature and writers around this time such as Vasile Alecsandri, Grigore Alexandrescu, Nicolae Bălcescu, Timotei Cipariu.
Contemporary period
The third phase of the modern age of Romanian language, starting from 1880 and continuing to this day, is characterized by the prevalence of the supradialectal form of the language, standardized with the express contribution of the school system and Romanian Academy, bringing a close to the process of literary language modernization and development of literary styles. It is distinguished by the activity of Romanian literature classics in its early decades: Mihai Eminescu, Ion Luca Caragiale, Ion Creangă, Ioan Slavici.
Modern history of Romanian in Bessarabia
The first Romanian grammar was published in Vienna in 1780. Following the annexation of Bessarabia by Russia in 1812, Moldavian was established as an official language in the governmental institutions of Bessarabia, used along with Russian, Charter for the organization of the Bessarabian Oblast, 29 April 1818, in "Печатается по изданию: Полное собрание законов Российской империи. Собрание первое.", Vol 35. 1818, Sankt Petersburg, 1830, pg. 222–227. Available online at hrono.info
The publishing works established by Archbishop Gavril Bănulescu-Bodoni were able to produce books and liturgical works in Moldavian between 1815 and 1820.Charles King (2026). 081799792X, Hoover Institution Press. 081799792X
Historical grammar
Romanian has preserved a part of the Latin declension. However, while Latin had six Grammatical case, from a morphological viewpoint, Romanian has only three: the nominative/accusative, genitive/dative case, and marginally the vocative. Romanian nouns also preserve the neuter gender, although instead of functioning as a separate gender with its own forms in adjectives, the Romanian neuter became a mixture of masculine and feminine. The verb morphology of Romanian has shown the same move towards a compound perfect and future tense as the other Romance languages. Compared with the other Romance languages, during its evolution, Romanian simplified the original Latin tense system. (2026). 9789027227904, John Benjamins Publishing. ISBN 9789027227904
Geographic distribution
Romanian is spoken mostly in Central Europe, Southeast Europe, and Eastern Europe, although speakers of the language can be found all over the world, mostly due to emigration of Romanian nationals and the return of immigrants to Romania back to their original countries. Romanian speakers account for 0.5% of the world's population, and 4% of the Romance-speaking population of the world.
+Geographic distribution of Romanian World 0.33% 23,623,890 7,035,000,000 Romania 90.65% 17,263,561 19,043,767 Moldova 2 82.1% 2,184,065 2,681,735 Transnistria (Moldova)3 33.0% 156,600 475,665 Vojvodina (Serbia) 1.04% 18,038 1,740,230 Ukraine 5 0.8% 327,703 48,457,000 Hungary 0.14% 13,886 9,937,628 Timok Valley (Serbia) 0.39% 25,702 6,664,007 Bulgaria 0.06% 4,575Ethnologue.com 7,364,570 Russia 1 0.06% 92,675 2010 Russia Census Perepis 2010 142,856,536 Kazakhstan 1 0.1% 14,666 14,953,126 Israel 1.11% ~82,300 7,412,200 UAE 0.1% 5,000 4,106,427 Singapore 0.02% 1,400 5,535,000 Japan 0.002% 2,185 126,659,683 South Korea 0.0006% 300 50,004,441 China 0.0008% 12,000 1,376,049,000 United States 0.049% 154,625 315,091,138 Canada 0.289% 100,610 34,767,250 Argentina 0.03% 13,000 40,117,096 Venezuela 0.036% 10,000 27,150,095 Brazil 0.002% 4,000 190,732,694 Australia 0.046% 12,251 c=AU; o=Commonwealth of Australia; ou=Australian Bureau of Statistics. 26,482,413 New Zealand 0.08% 3,100 4,027,947 South Africa 0.007% 3,000 44,819,778 1 Many are Moldavians who were deported
2 Data only for the districts on the right bank of Dniester (without Transnistria and the city of Tighina). In Moldova, it is sometimes referred to as the "Moldovan language"
3 In Transnistria, it is officially called "Moldovan language" and is written in Moldovan Cyrillic alphabet.
4 Officially divided into Vlachs and Romanians
5 Most in Northern Bukovina and Southern Bessarabia; according to a Moldova Noastră study (based on the latest Ukrainian census). RDSCJ.ro
Legal status
In Romania
According to the Constitution of Romania of 1991, as revised in 2003, Romanian is the official language of the Republic.
In Moldova
Romanian is the official language of the Republic of Moldova. The 1991 Declaration of Independence named the official language Romanian, and the Constitution of Moldova as originally adopted in 1994 named the state language of the country Moldovan. In December 2013, a decision of the Constitutional Court of Moldova ruled that the Declaration of Independence took precedence over the Constitution and the state language should be called Romanian. In 2023, the Moldovan parliament passed a law officially adopting the designation "Romanian" in all legal instruments, implementing the 2013 court decision.
Andrew Dalby (1998). 074753117X, Bloomsbury Publishing. 074753117X This law mandates the use of Moldovan in all the political, economic, cultural and social spheres, as well as asserting the existence of a "linguistic Moldo-Romanian identity". Legea cu privire la functionarea limbilor vorbite pe teritoriul RSS Moldovenesti Nr.3465-XI din 01.09.89 Vestile nr.9/217, 1989 (Law regarding the usage of languages spoken on the territory of the Republic of Moldova): "Moldavian RSS supports the desire of the Moldavian that live across the borders of the Republic, and – considering the existing Moldo-Romanian linguistic identity – of the Romanians that live on the territory of the USSR, of doing their studies and satisfying their cultural needs in their maternal language." It is also used in schools, mass media, education and in the colloquial speech and writing. Outside the political arena the language is most often called "Romanian". In the breakaway territory of Transnistria, it is co-official with Ukrainian and Russian.
, table 5.11, Populația după limba maternă, pe grupe de vârstă, la recensământul din 2024.
, table 5.11, Populația după limba maternă, pe grupe de vârstă, la recensământul din 2024.
, table 5.18, Populația în vârstă de 3 ani și peste după limba vorbită de obicei, pe grupe de vârstă, la recensământul din 2024. The proportion of the population who declared its usually spoken language to be Romanian was higher among younger age groups for which data is available, and it actually predominated in the 3-29 age group (319,303 who declared their "
, table 5.18, Populația în vârstă de 3 ani și peste după limba vorbită de obicei, pe grupe de vârstă, la recensământul din 2024.
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The Statute of the Autonomous Province of Vojvodina determines that, together with the Serbian language and the Cyrillic script, and the Latin script as stipulated by the law, the Croat, Hungarian, Slovak language, Romanian and and their scripts, as well as languages and scripts of other nationalities, shall simultaneously be officially used in the work of the bodies of the Autonomous Province of Vojvodina, in the manner established by the law.Article 24, "The Statute of the Autonomous Province of Vojvodina" , published in the Official Gazette of AP Vojvodina No.20/2014 The bodies of the Autonomous Province of Vojvodina are: the Assembly, the Executive Council and the provincial administrative bodies.
The Romanian language and script are officially used in eight municipalities: Alibunar, Bela Crkva ( Biserica Albă), Žitište ( Sângeorgiu de Bega), Zrenjanin ( Becicherecu Mare), Kovačica ( Covăcița), Kovin ( Cuvin), Plandište ( Plandiște) and Sečanj ( Seceani). In the municipality of Vršac ( Vârșeț), Romanian is official only in the villages of Vojvodinci ( Voivodinț), Markovac ( Marcovăț), Straža ( Straja), Mali Žam ( Jamu Mic), Malo Središte ( Srediștea Mică), Mesić ( Mesici), Jablanka ( Iablanca), Sočica ( Sălcița), Ritiševo ( Râtișor), Orešac ( Oreșaț) and Kuštilj ( Coștei).Provincial Secretariat for Regulations, Administration and National Minorities: "Official use of the Romanian language in the Autonomous Province of Vojvodina (APV)"
In the 2002 Census, the last carried out in Serbia, 1.5% of Vojvodinians stated Romanian as their native language.
In Hertsa Raion of Ukraine as well as in other villages of Chernivtsi Oblast and Zakarpattia Oblast, Romanian has been declared a "regional language" alongside Ukrainian as per the 2012 legislation on languages in Ukraine.
Romanian is taught as a foreign language in tertiary institutions, mostly in European countries such as Germany, France and Italy, and the Netherlands, as well as in the United States. Overall, it is taught as a foreign language in 43 countries around the world. "Data concerning the teaching of the Romanian language abroad" , Romanian Language Institute.
[[File:Knowledge Romanian Eastern EU.png|thumb|Romanian as secondary or foreign language in Central and Eastern Europe
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Also some artists wrote songs dedicated to the Romanian language. The multi-platinum pop trio O-Zone (originally from Moldova) released a song called "Nu mă las de limba noastră" ("I won't forsake our language"). The final verse of this song, "Eu nu mă las de limba noastră, de limba noastră cea română", is translated in English as "I won't forsake our language, our Romanian language". Also, the Moldovan musicians Doina and Ion Aldea Teodorovici performed a song called "The Romanian language".
This article deals with the Romanian (i.e. Daco-Romanian) language, and thus only its dialectal variations are discussed here. The differences between the regional varieties are small, limited to regular phonetic changes, few grammar aspects, and lexical particularities. There is a single written and spoken standard (literary) Romanian language used by all speakers, regardless of region. Like most natural languages, Romanian dialects are part of a dialect continuum. The dialects of Romanian are also referred to as 'sub-dialects' and are distinguished primarily by phonetic differences. Romanians themselves speak of the differences as 'accents' or 'speeches' (in Romanian: accent or grai).
Depending on the criteria used for classifying these dialects, fewer or more are found, ranging from 2 to 20, although the most widespread approaches give a number of five dialects. These are grouped into two main types, southern and northern, further divided as follows:
Over the last century, however, regional accents have been weakened due to mass communication and greater mobility.
Some and speech forms have also arisen from the Romanian language. Examples are the Gumuțeasca, spoken in Mărgău, and the Totoiana, an inverted "version" of Romanian spoken in Totoi.
The closest relative of Romanian among the Romance languages is Italian. The lexical similarity of Romanian with Italian has been estimated at 77%, followed by French at 75%, Sardinian at 74%, Catalan at 73%, Portuguese and Rhaeto-Romance at 72%, and Spanish at 71%.Ethnologue, Romanian
Compared to some other Romance languages such as Italian, Romanian reflects greater foreign influence in areas such as vocabulary. The Romanian vocabulary became predominantly influenced by French and, to a lesser extent, Italian in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.
A 1949 study by the Italian-American linguist Mario Pei, analyzing the degree to which seven Romance languages diverged from Classical Latin with respect to their accent vocalization, yielded the following measurements of divergence (with higher percentages indicating greater divergence from the stressed vowels of Classical Latin):
The study emphasized, however, that it represented only "a very elementary, incomplete and tentative demonstration" of how statistical methods could measure linguistic change, assigned "frankly arbitrary" point values to various types of change, and did not compare languages in the sample with respect to any characteristics or forms of divergence other than stressed vowels, among other caveats.
In the process of lexical modernization, much of the native Latin stock have acquired doublets from other Romance languages, thus forming a further and more modern and literary lexical layer. Typically, the native word is a noun and the learned loan is an adjective. Some examples of doublets:
In the 20th century, an increasing number of English words have been borrowed (such as: gem < jam; interviu < interview; meci < match; manager < manager; fotbal < football; sandvici/sendviș < sandwich; bișniță < business; chec < cake; veceu < WC; tramvai < tramway). These words are assigned grammatical gender in Romanian and handled according to Romanian rules; thus "the manager" is managerul. Some borrowings, for example in the computer field, appear to have awkward (perhaps contrived and ludicrous) 'Romanisation,' such as cookie-uri which is the plural of the Internet term cookie; normally, the hyphen isn't used for plural endings and definite articles.
In some cases, there are multiple variants of loanwords, such as maus/mauși (masculine) and mouse/mouse-uri (neuter).
If the analysis is restricted to a core vocabulary of 2,500 frequent, semantically rich and productive words, then the Latin inheritance comes first, followed by Romance and classical Latin neologisms, whereas the Slavic borrowings come third.
Although they are rarely used nowadays, the Romanian calendar used to have the traditional Romanian month names, unique to the language.* Dicționarul explicativ al limbii române, Romanian Academy, Institutul de Lingvistică "Iorgu Iordan", Editura Univers Enciclopedic, 1998
The longest word in Romanian is pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcaniconioză, with 44 letters, but the longest one admitted by the Dicționarul explicativ al limbii române ("Explanatory Dictionary of the Romanian Language", DEX) is electroglotospectrografie, with 25 letters.
Romanian is the only major Romance language where definite articles are enclitic: that is, attached to the end of the noun (as in the Scandinavian Languages, Bulgarian and Albanian), instead of in front (proclitic). They were formed, as in other Romance languages, from the Latin demonstrative pronouns.
As in all Romance languages, Romanian verbs are highly inflected for person, number, tense, mood, and voice. The usual word order in sentences is subject–verb–object (SVO). Romanian has four verbal conjugations which further split into ten conjugation patterns. Romanian verbs are conjugated for five moods (indicative mood, conditional mood/optative mood, imperative mood, subjunctive mood, and presumptive mood) and four non-finite forms (infinitive, gerund, supine, and participle).
In final positions after consonants, a short can be deleted, surfacing only as the palatalization of the preceding consonant (e.g., ). Similarly, a deleted may prompt labialization of a preceding consonant, though this has ceased to carry any morphological meaning.
Another similarity with Italian is the change from or to or (Lat. pax, pa cem → Rom. and Ital. pa ce, Lat. dul cem → Rom. dul ce, Ital. dol ce, Lat. circus → Rom. cerc, Ital. circo) and or to or (Lat. gelu → Rom. gèr, Ital. gelo, Lat. mar ginem → Rom. and Ital. mar gine, Lat. gemere → Rom. gèm ( gemere), Ital. gemere).
There are also a few changes shared with Dalmatian, such as (probably phonetically ) → (Lat. co gnatus → Rom. cu mnat, Dalm. co mnut) and → in some situations (Lat. coxa → Rom. có psă, Dalm. co psa).
Among the notable phonetic changes are:
Romanian has entirely lost Latin ( qu), turning it either into (Lat. quattuor → Rom. pàtru, "four"; cf. It. quattro) or (Lat. quando → Rom. când, "when"; Lat. quale → Rom. càre, "which").
The oldest surviving written text in Romanian is a letter from late June 1521, in which Neacșu of Câmpulung wrote to the mayor of Brașov about an imminent attack of the Turks. It was written using the Cyrillic alphabet, like most early Romanian writings. The earliest surviving writing in Latin script was a late 16th-century text which was written with the Hungarian alphabet conventions.
In the 18th century, scholars noted the Latin origin of Romanian and adapted the Latin alphabet to the Romanian language, using some orthographic rules from Italian alphabet, recognized as Romanian's closest relative. The Cyrillic alphabet remained in (gradually decreasing) use until 1860, when Romanian writing was first officially regulated.
In the Moldavian SSR, the Russian-derived Moldovan Cyrillic alphabet was used until 1989, when the Romanian Latin alphabet was introduced; in the breakaway territory of Transnistria the Cyrillic alphabet remains in use.
The Romanian alphabet is based on the Latin script with five additional letters Ă, Â, Î, Ș, Ț. Formerly, there were as many as 12 additional letters, but some of them were abolished in subsequent reforms. Also, until the early 20th century, a breve marker was used, which survives only in ă.
Today the Romanian alphabet is largely phonemic. However, the letters â and î both represent the same close central unrounded vowel . Â is used only inside words; î is used at the beginning or the end of non-compound words and in the middle of compound words. Another exception from a completely phonetic writing system is the fact that and their respective are not distinguished in writing. In dictionaries the distinction is marked by separating the entry word into for words containing a hiatus.
Stressed vowels also are not marked in writing, except very rarely in cases where by misplacing the stress a word might change its meaning and if the meaning is not obvious from the context. For example, trei copíi means "three children" while trei cópii means "three copies".
On 17 October 2016, the Moldovan minister of education signed Order No. 872, adopting the revised spelling rules as recommended by the Moldovan Academy of Sciences, and giving the following two school years as a transition period. Thus the spelling used by institutions under Moldova's ministry of education has been brought in line with the Romanian Academy's 1993 recommendation. This order, however, did not apply to other government institutions, and Law 3462 of 1989 (which provided for the means of transliterating Cyrillic to Latin) has not been amended to reflect the ministry of education's changes either; thus, most Moldovan government institutions, along with most Moldovans, prefer to use the spelling adopted in 1989 (when the use of Latin script became official).
Balkan language area
While most of Romanian grammar and morphology are based on Latin, there are some features that are shared only with other languages of the Balkans and not found in other Romance languages. The shared features of Romanian and the other languages of the Balkan language area (Bulgarian, Macedonian, Albanian, Greek, and Serbo-Croatian) include a suffixed definite article, the syncretism of genitive and dative case and the formation of the future and the alternation of infinitive with subjunctive constructions. According to a well-established scholarly theory, most Balkanisms could be traced back to the development of the Balkan Romance languages; these features were adopted by other languages due to language shift.
Slavic influence
Slavic influence on Romanian is especially noticeable in its vocabulary, with words of Slavic origin constituting about 10–15% of modern Romanian lexicon,, published in and with further influences in its phonetics, morphology and syntax. The greater part of its Slavic vocabulary comes from Old Church Slavonic, (2026). 9780199644926, Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199644926 which was the official written language of Wallachia and Moldavia from the 14th to the 18th century (although not understood by most people), as well as the Sacred language of the Romanian Orthodox Church. As a result, much Romanian vocabulary dealing with religion, ritual, and hierarchy is Slavic. The number of high-frequency Slavic-derived words is also believed to indicate contact or cohabitation with South Slavs tribes from around the 6th century, though it is disputed where this took place (see Origin of the Romanians). Words borrowed in this way tend to be more vernacular (compare , "to end", with , "to commit"). It has also been argued that Slavic borrowing was a key factor in the development of ( î and â) as a separate phoneme.
Other influences
Even before the 19th century, Romanian came in contact with several other languages. Notable examples of lexical borrowings include:
Furthermore, during the Habsburg and, later on, Austrian Empire rule of Banat, Transylvania, and Bukovina, a large number of words were borrowed from Austrian German, in particular in fields such as the military, administration, social welfare, economy, etc. Subsequently, German terms have been taken out of science and technics, like: șină < Schiene "rail", știft < Stift "peg", liță < Litze "braid", șindrilă < Schindel "shingle", ștanță < Stanze "punch", șaibă < Scheibe "washer", ștangă < Stange "crossbar", țiglă < Ziegel "tile", șmirghel < Schmirgelpapier "emery paper";
French, Italian, and English loanwords
Since the 19th century, many literary or learned words were borrowed from the other Romance languages, especially from French and Italian (for example: birou "desk, office", avion "airplane", exploata "exploit"). It was estimated that about 38% of words in Romanian are of French and/or Italian origin (in many cases both languages); and adding this to Romanian's native stock, about 75%–85% of Romanian words can be traced to Latin. The use of these Romanianized French and Italian learned loans has tended to increase at the expense of previous loanwords, many of which have become rare or fallen out of use. As second or third languages, French and Italian themselves are better known in Romania than in Romania's neighbors. Along with the switch to the Latin alphabet in Moldova, the re-latinization of the vocabulary has tended to reinforce the Latin character of the language.
+Latin and native doublets in Romanian
Lexis
A 1988 statistic by Marius Sala is based on 2,581 words chosen on the criteria of frequency, semantic richness and productivity, which also contain words formed on the territory of the Romanian language. This statistic gives the percentages below:
Grammar
Romanian nouns are characterized by gender (feminine, masculine, and neuter), and Declension by number (singular and plural) and case (nominative case/accusative case, dative case/genitive case and vocative case). The articles, as well as most adjectives and pronouns, agree in gender, number and case with the noun they modify.
Phonology
Romanian has seven : , , , , , and . Additionally, and may appear in some Loanword. Arguably, the diphthongs and are also part of the phoneme set. There are twenty-two consonants. The two approximants and can appear before or after any vowel, creating a large number of glide-vowel sequences which are, strictly speaking, not .
Phonetic changes
Owing to its isolation from the other Romance languages, the phonetic evolution of Romanian was quite different, but the language does share a few changes with Italian, such as → (Lat. clarus → Rom. chiàr, Ital. chiaro, Lat. clamare → Rom. chemare, Ital. chiamare) and → (Lat. * glacia ( glacies) → Rom. ghéață, Ital. ghiaccia, ghiaccio, Lat. *un gla (ungula) → Rom. un ghie, Ital. un ghia), although this did not go as far as it did in Italian with other similar clusters (Rom. plàce, Ital. piace).
Writing system
The first written record about a Romance language spoken in the Middle Ages in the Balkans is from 587. A Vlach muleteer accompanying the Byzantine army noticed that the load was falling from one of the animals and shouted to a companion Torna, torna, fratre! (meaning "Return, return, brother!"). Theophanes Confessor recorded it as part of a 6th-century military expedition by Comentiolus and Priscus against the Avars and Slovenes.
Romanian alphabet
The Romanian alphabet is as follows:
K, Q, W and Y, are not part of the native alphabet; they were officially introduced in the Romanian alphabet in 1982 and are mostly used to write loanwords like kilogram, quasar, watt, and yoga.
> A Ă Â B C D E F G H I Î J K L M N O P Q R S Ș T Ț U V W X Y Z a ă â b c d e f g h i î j k l m n o p q r s ș t ț u v w x y z , ,
, , ,
mute,
, , , ,
, ,
Pronunciation
ce, ci ch in chest, cheek cerc (circle), ceașcă (cup), cercel (earring), cină (dinner), ciocan (hammer) che, chi k in kettle, kiss cheie (key), chelner (waiter), chioșc (kiosk), chitară (guitar), ureche (ear) ge, gi j in jelly, jigsaw ger (frost), gimnast (gymnast), gem (jam), girafă (giraffe), geantă (bag) ghe, ghi g in get, give ghețar (glacier), ghid (guide), ghindă (acorn), ghidon (handle bar), stingher (lonely)
Punctuation and capitalization
Uses of punctuation peculiar to Romanian are:
Academy spelling recommendations
In 1993, new spelling rules were proposed by the Romanian Academy. In 2000, the Moldovan Academy recommended adopting the same spelling rules,The new edition of "Dicționarul ortografic al limbii române (ortoepic, morfologic, cu norme de punctuație)" – introduced by the Academy of Sciences of Moldova and recommended for publishing following a conference on 15 November 2000 – applies the decision of the General Meeting of the Romanian Academy from 17 February 1993, regarding the reintroduction to "â" and "sunt" in the orthography of the Romanian language. (Introduction, Institute of Linguistics of the Academy of Sciences of Moldova) and in 2010 the Academy launched a schedule for the transition to the new rules that was intended to be completed by publications in 2011.
Examples of Romanian text
The sentence in contemporary Romanian. Words inherited directly from Latin are highlighted:
The same sentence, with French and Italian loanwords highlighted instead:
The sentence rewritten to exclude French and Italian loanwords. Slavic loanwords are highlighted:
The sentence rewritten to exclude all loanwords. The meaning is unchanged:
See also
Notes
Bibliography
(2026). 9780521800730, Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521800730
External links
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